The British Empire and Armenia

 Summary

The British Empire and Armenia

Sahakyan, Tigran

(Yerevan: Lusakn, 2024)

This study provides an account and analysis of the relations between the British Empire and Armenia from their beginnings to the present. It shows how the rivalry among the British Empire, Russia and other powers gave rise to geopolitical confrontations that obstructed the just resolution of the Armenian Question, inflicting irreparable harm on the Armenian people.  In these pages, the author concisely sets forth the fruit of more than four decades of research, concluding that the greatest impediment to resolution of the Armenian Question was and remains the geopolitical policies of the British Empire carried forward by its successors in the collective West in tandem with Turkey.

From the 18^th to the 20^th centuries, Armenians lacked the resources to liberate themselves from Persian and later Turkish rule and thus turned to the Christian countries of Europe for assistance; however, this assistance was often half-hearted, duplicitous, or not forthcoming at all.  Armenian political leaders, disappointed in Europe, turned to Russia, which, in pursuit of its own geopolitical aims of securing a route to the Mediterranean Sea, intervened, clashing with the designs of England and other European countries with respect to this region.  To the extent that Russian and Armenian interests coincided in certain spheres, Armenia and the Armenians were perceived as Russian proxies and thus became a “thorn in the side” of the Ottoman Empire, British Empire and other European powers.  This coincidence of interests notwithstanding, like the British and the other European powers, the Russian Empire had no intention of fostering the establishment of an independent, sovereign Armenian state.  Like all imperial powers, when advantageous to its interests in dealing with global rivals, principally the British Empire and British protégé Ottoman Turkey, Russia invoked the Armenian factor–Armenian aspirations and resources–often sacrificing Armenians and the Armenian Question as pawns for its own geopolitical gains.

In short, during the past two centuries, the great powers have not protected Armenia from becoming collateral damage to their larger aims, nor have they taken responsibility for the harm borne by Armenians as a consequence.  Although the Armenians’ plight evoked sympathy among some notable English leaders and the British public, as a matter of state policy, England, out of rivalry with Russia, from 1878-1923, interceded on behalf of the Turks and Kurds in various international fora, contributing to the elimination of the entire Armenian population from their homeland in Western Armenia (the Armenian Genocide 1915-1923).

Nor did it end with Western Armenia. In the aftermath of WWI, England intervened in the Caucasus, creating conditions for Turks and Azeris to continue the policy of ethnic cleansing of Armenians from Eastern Armenia; for example, the March 23, 1920, massacre of 30,000 Armenian inhabitants of Shushi.  Further evidence of this deep-rooted imperial policy is England’s continued refusal to recognize and condemn the 1915 Armenian Genocide by Ottoman Turkey, even though the better part of the civilized world has done so, including the United States, Germany, France, Russia, Italy, Greece, Poland, Holland, Belgium, Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Cyprus and many other countries.

More recently, the right of self-determination of the people of Nagorno-Karabakh (Republic of Artsakh), expressed in its Sept. 2, 1991 and Dec. 10, 1991 declarations, while eliciting some sympathy from prominent British advocates, has officially been denied by England, in concert with the collective West, Russia, Turkey and Azerbaijan, resulting in the 2022 ethnic cleansing of the 120,000 Armenian inhabitants of Artsakh.  There is little doubt that the inertia of England’s long-standing policies continues to be a major factor in these destructive rivalries.

Armenians today face a grave situation and must take into account the persistent great power rivalry and clashing interests in the region, the foremost exponent of which is England, together with its successor and leader of the collective West, the United States.  Given their track record here and elsewhere, there can be little doubt: they will not hesitate once again to sacrifice Armenians and Armenia’s interests in pursuit of their rivalry with Russia (and now Iran and China as well).

Despite the many changes in circumstances and conditions, the vestiges of the British Empire’s policies, inherited by the United States and the collective West, continue to play a decisive role vis-à-vis Armenia and the Armenian Question.  These inherited policies, often petrified, overlook the reality that, for example, NATO ally Turkey (and its affiliate Azerbaijan) have long since pivoted toward Russia’s regional interests, making Armenia’s situation more precarious.  In effect, for Russia, as for other international powers, Armenia has been reduced to a pawn for their geopolitical maneuvers.  And, as happened in the case of the Republic of Nagorno-Karabagh, Armenia too may find itself sucked into a geopolitical triangle as Russia, the West, and the Turkish-Azeri “strategic partnership” realign themselves.   However, Armenia must not buckle under this challenge, but rather must redouble its efforts to protect and develop its national identity and autonomy, taking into account, in particular, the following:

1. Although past events sometimes “repeat” themselves, leaving an impression of inevitability and fatalism, in fact they are always slightly different, presenting both advantageous and disadvantageous new conditions for Armenia’s future. Strategic planning for various scenarios is essential for proper management of future threats and opportunities.
2. The great powers (England, USA, Russia and others) often act without particular regard for the direct and indirect consequences of their actions on other countries and nations. Rather, eyes fixed on the prize, they pursue their interests as they see fit, more concerned about protecting their reputations than with taking responsibility for such collateral damage.  To avoid becoming collateral damage, Armenia must be prepared and constantly vigilant.
3. It is important to bear in mind that great powers, no less than smaller ones, do not have absolute power and freedom to act as they choose. Their power and actions are relative to circumstances and subject to change and even inconsistency, based on timing, internal and external conditions, threats, opportunities, comparative power of rivals, strength of allies, etc.; thus, the fate and interests of smaller states and nations are often relegated to the margins of their policies, if considered as all.  In light of this, in matters affecting its vital interests, Armenia must do its utmost to avoid being marginalized or ignored all together in international processes.
4. In light of the relational and structural nature of geopolitical affairs, Armenians must be vigilant and agile in order to avoid being drawn into great power rivalries in situations that could result in existential harm to Armenia and Armenians.
5. Despite global integration, mass mobility and unprecedented connectivity, it is important to remember geographic realities. We all live in a specific physical space, in proximity to specific nations, with specific topography, land routes and waterways. Geography is a persistent feature of international affairs. Like geographic maps, political power maps also persist over time. Small and large nations are neighbors, and for better or worse, must interact with each other.  At the same time, global and regional players and problems from more distant places inevitably come knocking at their doors.  To navigate such a complex world, Armenians, based on their own realities and the imperatives of national self-preservation, must carefully examine developments, not only from their own perspective but from the perspectives of other players.

 

In conclusion, this study shows that Armenians can protect and develop their independent statehood and national identity, if they heed, today, tomorrow and always, Yeghishe Charents’s prophetic exhortation to the Armenian people (May 9, 1993): “O Armenian people, your only salvation is in your collective strength.” (Yeghishe Charents, Collected Works, (Yerevan, 1987) vol. 3, p. 212-213). In order to meet the inevitable challenges ahead, Armenians must gather their human, material and intellectual resources. They must act now, and be ready to act in the future, guided by the great Armenian poet and thinker, Avetik Isahakyan’s call to arms:

Arise, awake, be vigilant,
For though the rivers and winds may sleep,
The enemy never slumbers.

(Avetik Isahakyan, Works (Yerevan, 1987), p. 194).

Guided by these prophetic words and remaining true to the noble aspiration and the long-sought opportunity of creating a worthy “Armenian Home,” which entails the weighty and honorable responsibility for assuring a happy future for coming generations, the following are offered for the reader’s consideration:

1. The full potential of Armenians worldwide is necessary to address the challenges facing the Armenian nation. For this, national solidarity is essential.
2. National solidarity requires that Armenians world-wide cultivate mutual respect for the rights and freedoms of all classes and groups in the now diverse and dispersed Armenian community world-wide.
3. In order to navigate the new world order safely and avoid existential dangers, Armenia must take into account the demands, opportunities and constraints of the evolving geopolitical situation, protecting Armenian sovereignty, promoting Armenian culture, arts, science and education, and assuring the security of the Armenian people and their prosperity.
4. To progress, Armenians must be ready and agile, making the most of emerging favorable circumstances, acting prudently in a tense region and precariously interconnected world, with the dignity and wisdom befitting a small, yet ancient people.
5. To assure the continued development and flourishing of the Armenian people, it is necessary to make realistic assessments of the Armenians situation and to design and maintain a socio-political order that is suited to the Armenian homeland and the Armenian people’s resources, interests and needs.
6. To create a worthy habitat for Armenians to live as Armenians, Armenians must make the most of the opportunities that sovereignty affords, valuing and cherishing Armenia’s independent statehood with full awareness that it has a privileged international legal status few other small nations enjoy, acquired at great cost by prior generations.
7. To move forward, Armenia must find just and effective remedies for the tragedies that befell Artsakh, Armenia and the Armenians in 2020-23.
8. To avoid further self-inflicted damage, it is necessary to learn lessons from our own and others’ experience.
9. It is time for the Armenian people to earn a reputable role and place in the new world order.
10. To overcome dangers threatening the Armenian people and state, Armenians must avoid either over- or under-estimating the nation’s past, maintaining clear-headedness about geopolitical developments on all sides, thus avoiding missteps, averting undesirable consequences, and assuring future development and long-term security.
11. Armenians need to be self-reliant, solving issues with their own resources whenever possible, without unrealistic expectations of outside assistance.
12. As a buffer state caught in great power rivalries, Armenia needs to be wary of the destructive impact of external geopolitical influences and resist succumbing to internal divisions arising from external factors.
13. Being cognizant of limited resources, it is necessary to set and update policy priorities based on evolving conditions, rationally investing time and resources in projects and issues for which current conditions are conducive, while protecting long-term interests.
14. Armenians cannot afford to indulge in illusions of national except exceptionalism.
15. Armenians must aspire to be worthy heirs of their dedicated ancestors, protecting, building upon, and honorably cultivating their hard-earned legacy for future generations.